Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that change a person’s mental state. They do this by affecting the way the brain and nervous system work. Changes in brain function due to psychoactive drug use can affect a person’s perceptions, moods, and/or consciousness.

Also called psychotropics, psychoactive drugs can lead to intoxication. This is often the primary reason that people choose to take these types of substances.

Overview

Psychoactive substances are found in a number of medications as well as in alcohol, illegal and recreational drugs, and some plants and even animals. Alcohol and caffeine are psychoactive drugs that people most commonly use to alter their mental state. These drugs are legally available, but can still be physically and psychologically harmful if taken to excess.

Usually, people decide when and how they want to use psychoactive drugs. In some situations, however, psychoactive drugs are used to alter someone’s mental state in order to exploit the person. A common example of this is the date-rape drug Rohypnol, which is illegal in the U.S.

Risks

You should also be aware that taking prescribed psychoactive drugs in ways other than intended, for example, taking drugs that have been prescribed for someone else, even if they have been given to you, is illegal.¹

Natural substances, such as hallucinogenic mushrooms and cacti, and the leaves, flowers, and buds of certain plants may also be psychoactive.² Some people think that, because these substances occur naturally, they are less harmful than manufactured drugs. However, that is not the case.

For example, someone who uses a psychoactive plant to alter their mental state may have a higher risk of overdose or poisoning.

The reason for this is because the person taking the substance has no control over the strength of the plant’s psychoactive substance or toxicity, as there is in manufactured drugs. The same is true of street drugs purchased from a drug dealer, which are typically cut with a variety of other psychoactive and filler substances, some of which may be harmful.

A drug or medication that’s termed “psychoactive” isn’t necessarily addictive, although many are.

 When Does Drug Use Become an Addiction?

Classifications

There are several ways in which psychoactive drugs are classified:

• By their common effects (effects they all have) in the brain and body—for example, stimulants and depressants
• By their likelihood to cause addiction (high to low)
• By their chemical structure
• By U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration schedules I-V, which classify these drugs by the potential for abuse (“I” is highest, “V” is lowest)³

Groups of psychoactive drugs include stimulants, depressants, narcotics (opioids), hallucinogens, and marijuana (cannabis).

Stimulants

Examples of effects include heightened alertness, greater energy, excitability, improvement in mood that can reach euphoria, and bodily responses such as increased heart rate and blood pressure. 

Examples of stimulants include caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine. Examples of the effects of excessive use of cocaine may include irritability, mood swings, hallucination, heart palpitations, chest pain, and even death.⁴

Depressants

Examples of effects include reduced feelings of tension, relief of anxiety, and muscle relaxation. With excessive use, effects may include clammy skin, slow and shallow breathing, a rapid and weak pulse, coma, and death.⁵

Examples of depressants include alcohol and tranquilizers such as benzodiazepines.

Opioids

These are derived from the poppy plant (opiates) or synthetically produced (opioids). Examples of their effects include pain relief, drowsiness, euphoria, confusion, and respiratory depression.

With excessive use, effects may include nausea and vomiting, convulsions, respiratory arrest, coma, and death.⁶

Examples of opioids include some painkillers, such as codeine, morphine, oxycodone, and the street drug heroin.

Hallucinogens

Examples of effects include paranoia, depersonalization (a sense of not being real), hallucinations, erratic behavior, and increased blood pressure and heart rate. Effects of excessive use may include problems thinking and speaking, memory loss, and depression.⁷ 

Examples of hallucinogens include psilocybin from mushrooms, “acid” (LSD), ketamine, phencyclidine (PCP), dextromethorphan, and peyote (mescaline).

Marijuana (cannabis)

Examples of the psychoactive effects of marijuana include changes in sensory perception; euphoria; relaxation; appetite changes; impaired memory, concentration, and coordination; and changes in blood pressure.⁸ Marijuana is the only drug in its class.

Designer Drugs

Designer drugs, formerly known as “legal highs,” are chemicals that are produced to mimic the effects of other psychoactive substances such as stimulants, hallucinogenics, sedatives, or a combination.⁹ As their chemical composition is often unknown and evolving, they present clear challenges to toxicologists, medical staff, and society. They include bath salts, mephedrone, W18, MXE, spice, and many others.

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-psychoactive-22500

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Their initial results, published Translational Psychiatry, indicate that psilocybin does not lead to reduced body weight or food intake in obese mice. But the researchers don’t believe their findings, or lack thereof, should discourage additional studies evaluating the potential of psilocybin in humans.

Recent studies have provided initial evidence that psilocybin-assisted therapy might be effective in the treatment of addiction, leading the scientists behind the new research to wonder whether it could also help those who are struggling to control food cravings. In addition, a correlational study published in 2021 found that those who reported having tried a classic psychedelic drug at least once in their lifetime had significantly lower odds of being overweight or obese.

“Perhaps surprisingly, obesity is a rather treatment resistant disease that shares neuropathological similarities to mental disorders, such as addiction,” explained study author Christoffer Clemmensen (@ClemmensenC), an associate professor at the University of Copenhagen.

“Dysfunctions in homeostatic and reward circuitry can lead to ‘relapse’ in people with obesity, making it difficult to adhere to lifestyle and even drug interventions. Given that psychedelics are thought to enhance the plasticity of neural circuits, it may be that when combined with behavioural therapy, psychedelics might be powerful tools for ‘resetting’ long-held compulsive behaviors. Further, classic psychedelics act on the serotonergic system, and could have a direct effect on food intake by broad activation of serotonin (5-HT) receptors, emphasizing their potential benefits for obesity.”

For their new study, the researchers used mouse models of genetic obesity, diet-induced obesity, and binge-eating disorder to examine the effect of psilocybin on body weight and food intake. But they found no evidence that a single high dose of psilocybin or a daily microdosing produced significant metabolic or behavioral changes.

“We were surprised to see that psilocybin did not have at least a subtle direct effect on food intake and/or body weight in genetic and diet-induced models of obesity and overeating,” Clemmensen told PsyPost.

“Although we failed to discover major effects of psilocybin on mouse energy metabolism and behaviors associated with eating, we believe that there are nuances of the mode of action of psychedelics that cannot be appropriately captured in rodent models. Importantly, psilocybin was safe and had no adverse effects on the physiological parameters we tested in mice.”

Mouse models are an invaluable tool that allows scientists to study a wide range of conditions in a highly controlled setting, and they have aided in the understanding of complex genetic and biological processes that underlie many diseases.

While rodent models have helped to advance our understanding of addiction and other conditions, they are not perfect substitutes for human subjects. Ultimately, more research is needed to fully understand the effects of psychedelic substances on food intake in humans, the researchers said.

“The main caveat is translation,” Clemmensen explained. “Although animal models in general have been invaluable for neuroscience and metabolism research they might be inappropriate for testing health benefits of psychedelics.”

“I remain excited about this topic, psychedelics for treatment of obesity and eating disorders and I think we should start considering what sub-groups of patients could benefit from this drug class,” he added,

The study, “Acute and long-term effects of psilocybin on energy balance and feeding behavior in mice“, was authored by Nicole Fadahunsi, Jens Lund, Alberte Wollesen Breum, Cecilie Vad Mathiesen, Isabella Beck Larsen, Gitte Moos Knudsen, Anders Bue Klein, and Christoffer Clemmensen.

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When it comes to psychedelic journeys, the environment can truly make all the difference. The importance of set and setting has been touted by psychedelic scholars, experts, and enthusiasts throughout history. This is especially true of what people hear during their trips.

Early studies on entheogens and their potential benefits kept participants in extremely sterile lab conditions, considered by many to be the scientists’ and volunteers’ determinants. By 1959, researchers in Saskatchewan looking into LSD as a treatment for alcoholism realized subjects were profoundly impacted by their surroundings, opting to add relaxing music (typically classical) to the dosing experience.

Famed psychedelic researcher Dr. Timothy Leary introduced the concept of set and setting to a wider audience in his 1964 book The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead. Popular music was heavily influenced by the psychedelic counterculture, with Pink Floyd, the Doors, and even the Beatles offering up LSD-inspired tunes to the masses.

What does modern science say about sound and psychedelics?

Fast-forward to the 21st century. A new psychedelic renaissance inspired more in-depth research on set and setting than ever before, with particular interest paid to auditory stimuli.

A 2018 study conducted at Imperial College in London examined the role of music in psychedelic therapy. Researchers found participants had a more emotional response to the playlists presented and credited them with offering a more profound trip. But does the type of music being played make a difference?

This concept was tested in 2020 when scientists at Johns Hopkins explored combining psychedelic therapy with both classical (the old favorite for journeys) and recordings with overtone signatures, which feature droning sounds made by instruments such as Tibetan singing bowls, chimes, or didgeridoos. The study revealed that overtone tracks offered a more mystical experience in addition to helping the therapy itself have a more long-term impact (participants were enrolled in the study to help quit smoking).

Psychedelic sound therapy tools rising in popularity

As interest in psychedelics continues to grow, so too does the number of auditory aides meant to complement and enhance a person’s trip. Sound baths have become increasingly commonplace, oftentimes able to alter one’s perception without the need for entheogens at all. Numiunus Wellness recently launched their Music as Medicine event series, featuring entrancing meditative music alongside stunning visuals.

Several psychedelic-centric apps have hit the scene, providing the perfect soundscapes and guided meditations to transcend time and space, particularly during therapeutic sessions. Some of the most popular include Wavepaths, Trip, and Polyfauna.

A wide array of products are also available to help people augment their psychedelic journeys. The Kasina DeepVision bundle allows users to tap into both sounds and visuals, allowing for focus, relaxation, and deep introspection. The NeoRhythm headband utilizes pulsed electromagnetic field therapy to stimulate and sync the brain to create the perfect state of mind for meditation and psychedelic journeys.

inHarmony Meditation Cushion

The inHarmony meditation cushion provides an immersive 360-degree listening experience that can aid in the meditative process by quieting the outside world, letting people truly escape and make the most of their sound therapy session. Their corresponding app has over 100 music meditations, perfect for any type of trip. The company harnesses the incredible powers of vibroacoustic therapy, which uses low wave sound vibrations to promote healing. They have amassed a wide array of promising research, partnering with several leading authorities in the space, and are currently conducting their own studies with results coming soon.

In psychedelic journeys, sounds make the difference

The right set and setting are crucial in the psychedelic experience, drastically impacting the trajectory of an individual trip. This is especially true of what a person hears during their journey, as the right frequencies could determine both the vibe and long-term outcome of the therapeutic session.

Psychedelic Spotlight wants to help you enhance your future psychedelic journeys. We’re giving away one of inHarmony’s awesome meditation cushions, a $699 value! Sign up here for a chance to win!

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From functional mushroom supplements to psilocybin laced bars, mushroom chocolate is a rapidly growing industry

Few foods engender as much passion or popularity as chocolate. Dense, decadent, and creamy: chocolate has left an indelible imprint on human civilization. So too have mushrooms, with their mind-bending, medicinal properties. But what kind of transcendental magic takes place when you combine the two to make mushroom chocolate?

That’s a question that creative chocolate connoisseurs and shroom enthusiasts are currently rushing to answer. Right now, mushroom chocolate is having a serious moment. The emerging creations lean towards both the legal and illegal ends of the spectrum.

Mycophiles can choose between hot chocolate and bars laced with medicinal mushrooms such as Lion’s Mane, or deluxe chocolate crafted with psilocybin mushrooms. The growing popularity of both speaks to a trend first triggered by cannabis edibles: good things happen when plant medicine is presented as a delicious treat.

Medicinal Mushroom Hot Chocolate and Chocolate Bars

For those keen to experiment with mushrooms who aren’t yet ready for a psychedelic experience, functional or medicinal mushrooms represent a nourishing, non-intoxicating alternative. Mushroom hot chocolate is formulated by blending cacao or carob with adaptogenic mushrooms such as ​​reishi, cordyceps, chaga, turkey tail and lion’s mane.

These hot, wholesome beverages are increasingly popular among individuals ready to give up coffee jitters in favor of drinks that alleviate stress and enhance mental function. Medicinal mushrooms each boast their own collection of therapeutic properties, but all are believed to be adaptogenic. Adaptogens support the body in adjusting to physical, chemical, or biological stress, helping bodily systems return to a balanced state known as homeostasis. These powerhouse plant compounds can also support the body in maintaining metabolic functions more effectively and boost mental and physical performance.

Woodland Mushroom Hot Chocolate Super Adaptogenic Blend, for example, combines reishi and lion’s mane to elevate immune and brain function, reduce anxiety and lower inflammation. In addition, the brand opts for carob to provide chocolate flavor rather than cacao (which contains caffeine). For those looking for a stronger chocolate fix, however, Buoyant Chocolates have crafted milk and dark chocolate bars with powdered lion’s mane and cordyceps. This functional dessert is touted to enhance focus, concentration, memory, and physical stamina.

However, for those seeking a chocolate hit with a side of psychedelics, other options abound.

Psilocybin Mushroom Chocolate

For the Co-Founder STEM Chocolate, who has asked us to remain anonymous, combining dried psilocybin mushrooms with Callebaut chocolate from Belgium represented a modern take on a sacred, ancient medicine.

“Traditionally, the combination of psilocybin and cacao is known as the Aztec combo,” explains the Co-Founder. “Cacao’s name is derived from the scientific name Theobroma cacao meaning food or nourishment of the gods. The Aztecs referred to the psilocybin mushroom as Teonanácatl which translates to flesh of the gods.”

The entrepreneur developed STEM to craft psilocybin-infused chocolate that could open people’s minds to the diverse benefits of safe medicinal mushroom consumption.

“We’re dedicated to dismantling the stigma surrounding this magnificent species. We were driven to create STEM to disrupt the industry as we know it, by presenting this medicine in a more elevated and approachable way.” STEM’s chocolate is not your run-of-the-mill dark/milk/white variety. Think instead of exotic flavors such as cardamom, Provence lavender, and yuzu.

“STEM’s most popular mushroom chocolate bar flavors are Cookies & Cream Dreams, Caramel Gold Rush, and our premium Passionfruit Triptych made with Penis Envy mushrooms, Valrhona chocolate, and genuine 23K gold,” says the Co-Founder.

The benefits of blending cacao and psilocybin

The Co-Founder STEM Chocolate points out that the tradition of combining cacao and psilocybin is actually thousands of years old, dating back to ancient medicinal ceremonies.

“Their strong synergy has been known to enhance the effects of psilocybin and guide the spirit through the journey. Together, psilocybin mushrooms and cacao give more depth to a psychedelic experience. Traditionally, it is said that psilocybin mushrooms open the mind, while cacao opens the heart.”

There’s evidence that teaming the two does offer unique benefits. Although cacao is not a psychedelic, it is a stimulant of sorts. Cacao contains MAO-inhibitors, anandamide, and other potent natural compounds that help to elevate mood and feelings of pleasure. The Co-Founder adds that these features help to enhance the effect of psilocybin. What’s more, cacao is rich in natural fats (here’s looking at you, cacao butter), which increase the absorption of psilocybin.

She suggests thinking of cacao as a liposomal carrier for cacao. “The fat particles make it easier for the body to absorb while allowing the psilocybin to transfer to the blood and brain,” she explains. In short, teaming psilocybin and cacao seems to make for an elevated psychedelic experience. “Food of the gods and flesh of the gods is the perfect balance, and a match made in heaven,” reflects the Co-Founder.

Edibles for microdosing

The genius of the shroom chocolate bars is that they can easily be divided into microdosed-sized pieces, so consumers can control how much psilocybin they swallow with each bite.

“The bar is divided between 15 pieces. Each piece contains 200 mg of psilocybin mushrooms,” says the Co-Founder of STEM chocolate “We suggest cutting each piece in half (100 mg) or quarters (50 mg) for a scheduled psilocybin microdose routine. One bar should last you between 1-2 months, depending on your dosing schedule.”

For those new to psychedelics, or those seeking to harness their benefits regularly, microdosing represents an easy and effective way to dip one’s toes in the proverbial psychedelic pool. Microdosing allows the individual to lean into an altered mood and perspective rather than venture into outer space on a hero’s journey.

Yes it’s delicious… but is it legal?

The rise of psilocybin chocolate and other psilocybin-infused edibles raises legal questions. Although the decriminalization of psychedelic substances is on the rise, psilocybin is still illegal in most locations. However, police regulate psilocybin more rigorously in some places than others.

“STEM is very fortunate to be based in Vancouver, Canada, which seems to be leading this industry by allowing these activities to continue without fear of legal repercussions,” she comments. “Vancouver seems to have a trend of pushing these industries forward as it was the same with cannabis a few years ago, prior to legalization. Today, several mushroom-only dispensaries are operating within Vancouver that offer a variety of mushroom-specific products.”

The Co-Founder of STEM chocolate believes the current push for legalization in Canada (symbolized most recently by British Columbia’s decision to allow small quantities of drugs for personal use) enables STEM and other psilocybin entrepreneurs to operate in a “gray area”. In other words, psilocybin is not legal, but nor is it being rigorously policed either.

In states in the US, however, activity involving magic mushrooms is more stringently controlled. The recent case involving Indiana nurse Jessica Thornton, who is awaiting sentencing for growing her own supply of psilocybin, represents a case in point. In other states, psilocybin chocolate artisans operate within a black market, churning out bars quickly and surreptitiously to meet rising demand.

The Co-Founder remains optimistic, however, that the legal landscape will soon shift. “With this new re-surge of evidence-based research being conducted, the medical industry can no longer ignore the many benefits psilocybin treatment has to offer,” she says. “As more individuals seek new alternatives to medicines that can aid them in their health journey, legislation will have to change.”

https://psychedelicspotlight.com/mushroom-chocolate-the-new-wave-in-mind-altering-edibles/

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This psychedelic guide to psilocybin mushrooms was originally written by Third Wave, a platform that inspires cultural awakening through personal transformation.

Disclaimer: Psilocybin is a largely illegal substance and we do not encourage or condone its use where it is against the law. However, we accept that illegal drug use occurs and believe that offering responsible harm reduction information is imperative to keeping people safe. For that reason, this guide is designed to ensure the safety of those who decide to use psilocybin.

Visit facilities where this medicine is legalized here.

What are Magic Mushrooms?

Psilocybin mushrooms are fungi that contain the psychoactive compound psilocybin, a naturally occurring psychedelic compound capable of producing powerful hallucinations and mystical-type experiences, along with other effects. Psilocybin is more commonly known as “magic mushrooms” or “shrooms.” More than 180 species of mushrooms contain psilocybin or its derivative psilocin, and the fungi have a long history of use in Mesoamerican spiritual and religious rituals. They’re also one of the most popular and commonly used psychedelics in the U.S. and Europe.Psilocybin mushrooms are more than just a drug and sacrament, however. They’ve been used in therapeutic settings to treat a variety of ailments and disorders including cluster headaches, obsessive-compulsive disorders, anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and addiction, and a recent resurgence in research into psilocybin’s therapeutic effects is showing promising results.

While psilocybin mushrooms have been decriminalized in three North American cities (see “Legality” for details), they are still illegal at the federal level and are categorized as a Schedule I controlled substance in the U.S. Recently, however, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) have allowed several small, highly controlled human studies on their potential for use in medical and psychiatric settings. The FDA also designated psilocybin as a “breakthrough therapy” for depression, which could accelerate the process of psilocybin drug development and review.

What is the Mushroom Experience Like?

Many factors contribute to the psilocybin experience, including dose, mindset, setting, mushroom variety, preparation method, and your body’s personal chemistry. With that in mind, each individual journey will be unique to the person, time, and place, and there’s no way to predict exactly what will happen. But understanding the common experiences and effects of common psilocybin strains will help you prepare for your journey.

What to expect

Psilocybin mushrooms are generally eaten in their whole, dried form and most people agree they don’t taste great. To mask the flavor, some people brew the mushrooms into a tea, put them in Nutella or peanut butter, blend them with a juice or smoothie, mix them with citrus juice (known as Lemon Tekking), or grind them up and put them into capsules. Each of these ways will have a slightly different effect. Drinking a mushroom tea, for example, will bring on the effects faster than eating them; swallowing capsules will make the effects come on a little later.

A typical trip on a moderate dose of psilocybin mushrooms (1-2.5g) includes an increased intensity of emotional experiences, increased introspection, and altered psychological functioning in the form of “hypnagogic experiences,” which is the transitory state between wakefulness and sleep. Brain imaging studies show that a psilocybin trip is neurologically similar to dreaming, which gives you a good idea of the mindset you’re entering when undertaking a psychedelic experience.

During a psilocybin experience, you can expect to experience perceptual changes, synesthesia, emotional shifts, and a distorted sense of time.^[1] Perceptual changes can include visuals such as halos around lights and objects as well as geometric patterns when your eyes are closed. You may also experience vivid colors, tracers, distorted vision, and a sense of the world breathing around you.

Thoughts and emotions can change, too. It’s not uncommon to have a sense of openness to thoughts and feelings that you avoid in your everyday life, as well as a sense of wonder and delight with the world around you, the people in your life, and your own mind. You may also feel a sense of peace and connection with the world.

Strong emotions, both enjoyable and challenging, are common during a journey. When undesirable feelings do arise, it’s best not to resist but rather let the feelings run their course. Many people who have reported the presence of strong negative emotions also report feeling a simultaneous sense of calm acceptance and detachment, especially if they don’t resist and remind themselves that the emotions are temporary. Resisting the emotions can lead to a “bad trip.” (See “Bad trips” for more details.)

Physical side effects vary from person to person, but they can include a change in heart rate (up or down), change in blood pressure (up or down), nausea, increased tendon reflexes, tremors, dilated pupils, restlessness or arousal, and trouble with coordinated movement. Some also report feeling deeply relaxed and calm.

One study also found that psilocybin can cause headaches that last for up to a day in healthy individuals.^[2] None of the subjects reported severe headaches, however, and psilocybin is actually used to treat a clinical condition called cluster headaches (see “Therapeutic Uses” section).

Phases of a Psychedelic Mushroom Trip

The four basic phases of a mushroom trip are ingestion, onset, the trip (peak), and the comedown. Each phase comes with its own set of perceptions and observations. The peak, which typically occurs a couple of hours after ingestion (unless you’re Lemon Tekking) results in the most intense sensory and psychological shifts. No matter what phase you’re in, it’s important to relax and remember that what you’re experiencing is temporary, and there is nothing to fear.

Check out our detailed guide on what to expect during a psilocybin mushroom trip for more information.

Bad Trips

Anyone curious about trying psilocybin mushrooms for the first time will inevitably worry at some point about having a “bad trip,” which can happen. A bad trip might include dysphoric hallucinations, uncontrollable paranoia, and reckless behaviors. However, the risks associated with a psilocybin experience can be minimized by adhering to the 6S’s of the psychedelic experience—set, setting, substance, sitter, session, and situation. Being prepared and knowing your motivations before undertaking a psychedelic experience can help manage the risks. Also, it’s best to ignore the many portrayals of bad trips in popular culture. These scenes rarely capture the experience accurately and allude to bad trips being more common and out of your control than they actually are. Most bad trips can be managed with interpersonal support and without pharmaceutical intervention. ^[3]

Want to easily grow mushrooms at home?

Third Wave’s Mushrooms Grow Kit and Course turn the daunting task of cultivating mushrooms into a simple one.

Our in-depth guide and step-by-step videos will have you harvesting your own home-grown mushrooms in no time.

Psilocybin Mushroom Effects

Pharmacology

Psilocybin is the active psychedelic ingredient in psychedelic mushrooms. The threshold dose for feeling the effects from dried mushrooms is typically in the 0.2-0.5g range, though it varies for each person. A moderate dose in the 1-2.5g range, taken orally, typically produces effects that last from three to six hours. Psilocybin is about 100 times less potent than LSD and 10 times less potent than mescaline.

Read More: LSD vs Shrooms

When you take psilocybin, your body metabolizes the substance into psilocin, both of which produce the psychedelic effects. Psilocybin and psilocin primarily interact with serotonin receptors in the brain and have an especially high affinity for the 5-HT (serotonin) 2A subtype receptors. In rodents, psilocybin has shown a strong interaction with receptors in hub regions of the brain that integrate sensory experiences. This could explain effects such as synesthesia—the experience of mixing sensory modalities, such as hearing colors or tasting sounds—and altered sensory experiences during mushroom trips.

Effects by Dose

NOTE: The effects listed below aren’t meant to be comprehensive, particularly at the lower dose ranges. They may be subject to change as more reliable, widely representative data become available.

These dose ranges are for Psilocybe cubensis mushrooms. They may apply to other psilocybin-containing species, but some (e.g. P. semilanceata) are more potent on average.

Microdose (0.1-0.3 g)

A microdose is a sub-perceptual (unnoticeable) dose, which many people incorporate into their weekly routines. The idea behind this is to enhance levels of creativity, energy, and focus, and decrease levels of stress, anxiety, and emotional instability. Find out more in our microdosing guide. Common effects include:

• Mood enhancement
• Decreased stress
• Emotional stability
• Mindfulness, presence, and peace
• Openness and self-forgiveness
• Conversational fluidity
• Alleviation of persistent conditions such as depression, anxiety, ADD/ADHD, and PTSD
• Increased motivation (e.g. to make positive lifestyle changes)
• Increased flow states
• Clearer, more connected thinking
• Improved memory
• Increased creativity
• Easier meditation
• Enhanced athletic endurance
• Increased energy overall (without anxiety or a subsequent crash)
• Slight amplification of mood, positive or negative
• Possible manic states
• Potentially increased neuroticism

Mini-dose (0.35-0.75 g)

While a proper microdose shouldn’t be felt, a mini-dose of psilocybin takes you just above the perceptual threshold—but it’s not a full-blown trip. As one of our community members put it, a mini-dose gives you “that total expansion of being, total freeflow feeling” without losing touch with your surroundings. Common effects include:

• Mood enhancement, mild euphoria or excitement
• Mindfulness, presence, and peace
• Openness and self-forgiveness
• Introspective insights
• Alleviation of persistent conditions such as depression, anxiety, ADD/ADHD, and PTSD
• Increased motivation (e.g. to make positive lifestyle changes)
• Increased flow states
• Clearer, more connected thinking
• Enhanced senses
• Easier meditation
• Increased enjoyment of physical activity and everyday tasks
• Preference for introspection over socializing
• Increased sensitivity to light
• Very mild visuals, if any
• Possible manic states
• Difficulty focusing or thought loops
• Difficulty with some cognitive tasks
• Anxiety, agitation, or restlessness
• Difficulty or discomfort socializing

Museum dose (0.5-1.5 g)

The effects of psilocybin are more apparent with a museum dose than with a mini-dose, but a museum dose still won’t give you a full psychedelic experience. The name “museum dose,” coined by the biochemist and pharmacologist Dr. Alexander Shulgin, refers to the fact that on this dose, you can still participate in public activities (such as viewing paintings in a museum) without attracting attention. Common effects include:

• Mood enhancement, euphoria or excitement
• Mild to moderate visuals (e.g. “breathing” environments)
• Increased empathy
• Conversational fluidity
• Introspection
• Increased flow states
• Enhanced senses
• Enhanced appreciation for music, art, etc.
• Increased creativity
• Amplification of mood, positive or negative
• Altered perception of sound
• Time dilation or contraction (time passing more slowly or quickly)
• Increased sensitivity to light
• Pupil dilation
• Difficulty focusing or thought loops
• Difficulty or discomfort socializing
• Frustration at dosage (the “no man’s land”)

Moderate dose (2-3.5 g)

This is where the full psychedelic experience begins. You’ll likely see visual hallucinations, including patterns and fractals, and things like time and depth perception will be distorted. But with this dose, you’re still able to grasp your surroundings—they’ll just be highly altered. Common effects include:

• Life-changing introspective or philosophical insights
• Increased flow of ideas
• Enhanced appreciation for music, art, etc.
• Finding otherwise mundane things funny or interesting
• Clear come-up, peak, and come-down
• Amplification of emotions, whether good or bad
• Open- and closed-eye visuals (e.g. patterns, auras)
• Synesthesia
• Sensitivity to light
• Compulsive yawning
• Disorientation
• Fear and anxiety (“bad trip” experiences)
• Difficulty with cognitive tasks
• Dizziness
• Nausea

Megadose (5+ g)

A megadose brings on a total loss of connection with reality. This is where you’ll experience intense hallucinations, as well as ego death, mystical experiences, and deep introspection. Common effects include:

• Mystical experience and intense feelings of wonder
• Life-changing introspective or philosophical insights
• Ego death
• Very strong open- and closed-eye visions (e.g. memories coming to life)
• Synesthesia
• Time becoming meaningless
• Disorientation
• Compromised motor functions (sitter recommended!)
• Strong fear and anxiety (extreme “bad trip” experiences)
• Extreme difficulty with cognitive tasks
• Dizziness
• Nausea

Interactions With Other Drugs

So far, not much data exists around psilocybin’s interaction with other drugs, whether good or bad, but it’s best to be intentional and err on the side of caution when mixing any two substances together. Here’s what we do know.

Positive Interactions

• Cannabis: Cannabis has the potential to enhance the psychedelic nature of the mushrooms, but it’s best to wait until the latter half of the experience so you don’t interfere with the insight provided by psilocybin.
• Ketamine: Psilocybin + ketamine is the classic Burning Man combination. If you combine ketamine with psilocybin, wait until the intensity of the psilocybin experience has passed before utilizing ketamine.
• MDMA: Colloquially known as “hippy flipping,” mixing MDMA and psilocybin is a common practice. While no existing research supports the safety or danger of this combination, anecdotal reports show that MDMA can enhance the psilocybin trip and even help you avoid being overcome with negative emotions.

Neutral Interactions

• Coffee: There are no known side effects to mixing coffee and psilocybin, but some believe the energy boost of caffeine can enhance the psilocybin experience.

Negative Interactions

• Alcohol: Anecdotal reports from emergency rooms suggest that abstaining from alcohol while on mushrooms is the safest and smartest bet. In fact, it’s best to abstain from alcohol while using any psychedelic.^[4]
• Adderall, Xanax, SSRI antidepressants: These are powerful psychoactive drugs with largely subjective side effects, and psychedelic use should be approached with extreme caution if you regularly take any of these substances. On top of that, psilocybin is a potent serotonin agonist, which means it could interfere with any medications that alter the serotonin system.

Microdosing Psilocybin Mushrooms

Microdosing is the act of consuming sub-perceptual (unnoticeable) amounts of a psychedelic substance. Many individuals who have integrated microdosing psilocybin mushrooms into their weekly routine report higher levels of creativity, more energy, increased focus, and improved relational skills, as well as reduced anxiety, stress, and even depression. Some enthusiasts also report that microdosing psilocybin has helped them heighten their spiritual awareness and enhance their senses.

While the modern history of psychedelics reaches back to the 1950s, interest in microdosing surged with the publication of Dr. James Fadiman’s 2011 book, The Psychedelic Explorer’s Guide: Safe, Therapeutic, and Sacred Journeys. The book explores microdosing as a subculture of psychedelic use. While many indigenous cultures, as well as modern professionals, have used microdosing to unlock a host of benefits, Fadiman’s book formally introduced the term “microdosing” into the psychedelic mainstream.

Fadiman’s ongoing research also serves as one of the few modern studies into the effects of microdosing specifically. While there have been some recent clinical studies examining the efficacy of microdosing, we know more about what large doses of psychedelics do to the brain. But chances are microdosing does similar work, just on a smaller level. To learn more about microdosing, read our comprehensive microsing guide.

Psilocybin Mushrooms for Therapeutic Use

As far back as the 60s and 70s, research into psilocybin has suggested that the substance could play a promising role in the treatment of a wide variety of disorders, including cluster headaches, mood disorders, and addiction.^[5]

However, after the federal government reclassified psilocybin as a Schedule I drug in the 1970s, research on its therapeutic effects became virtually non-existent. All that has changed with the third wave of psychedelics. With anecdotal accounts of psilocybin’s therapeutic effects finally capturing the attention of medical professionals and regulators and trickling into the mainstream, today, research is being funded and conducted by many organizations, including MAPS, The Beckley Foundation, and The Johns Hopkins Center for Psychedelic & Consciousness Research. Like the research in the 60s and 70s, so far research is showing that psilocybin could have profound therapeutic effects.

Psilocybin in the Treatment of Mood and Anxiety Disorders

For years, anecdotal reports have shown psilocybin (and other psychedelics) to be an effective treatment for mood disorders such as depression and anxiety. Now in the third wave of psychedelics, this is one of the most prevalent areas of modern clinical research involving psilocybin, leading the federal government to allow some small, highly controlled studies to be conducted on the therapeutic potential of psilocybin on mood disorders. In 2011, for example, a pilot study tested the effects of psilocybin on depression and end-of-life anxiety in terminal cancer patients.^[6] Patients in this study had advanced-stage cancer and a clinical diagnosis of stress or anxiety related to their disease. After psilocybin treatment, researchers observed significant improvements in measures of depression and anxiety up to six months after the trial. This study was eventually granted Phase II status by the FDA, meaning a larger study could be conducted.

Another study by a prestigious research group in London suggests psilocybin could be used to treat major depression.^[7] In the study, twelve patients were given two doses of psilocybin (one low, and one high), combined with psychological support. One week after the second dose, depression scores were significantly reduced in nearly all patients, with eight out of 12 showing no symptoms of depression. Three months later, five patients were still depression-free, and four of the remaining seven had a reduction in the rating of their depression from “Severe” to “Mild or Moderate.”

Psilocybin treatment has also been shown to successfully reduce symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in a small study of people who didn’t respond to conventional serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI) drug therapy.^[8] In this study, all patients showed a reduction in OCD symptoms ranging from 23% to 100%.

Psilocybin studies continue to unfold, proving its transformative healing powers. Check out Third Wave’s curated list of cutting-edge research on psilocybin for depression and anxiety in our recent 2021 news article.

Psilocybin in the Treatment of Addiction

In the 50s and 60s, “classic psychedelics” were used in preclinical trials to treat addiction with promising results. But again, once many of these psychedelics were made illegal in the U.S. and most of Europe, research into their use for therapeutic applications came to a halt. But recent years have seen a resurgence of research looking at psilocybin and other psychedelics as promising treatments for addiction.

In a 2015 study, for example, psilocybin proved useful in treating alcoholism as part of an assisted treatment plan.^[9] Significant reductions in drinking and abstinence from drinking were reported after psilocybin administration as part of a treatment program.

Psilocybin also appears to be a potential tool in helping people quit smoking tobacco. In a recent trial, 15 smokers experienced two to three psilocybin sessions as part of a larger cognitive-behavioral therapy program for smoking cessation. Twelve of the participants (80%) were able to successfully quit.^[10] By comparison, conventional smoking cessation method success rates—including gum, patches, and going cold turkey—have about a 35% success rate.

Psilocybin in the Treatment of Cluster Headaches

More intense but shorter in duration than migraines, cluster headaches are often described as the most painful and disruptive type of headache and they interfere significantly with a person’s life.

So far no systematic studies have been published that describe psilocybin’s potential to treat cluster headaches, but anecdotal reports claiming this use have caught the attention of the medical community. In the mid-2000s, medical professionals began taking notice of psilocybin and LSD as possible treatments for cluster headaches after some of their patients reported remission of their condition following recreational psychedelic use and subsequent self-medication.^[11]

One recent survey reported that psilocybin could be a more effective treatment of cluster headaches than currently available medications, with nearly 50% of sufferers reporting psilocybin as a completely effective treatment. ^[12] Several clinical studies into this use are underway and more research should be available soon. ^[13] [14]

Does Psilocybin Re-Wire the Brain?

Some researchers are beginning to theorize that many of psilocybin’s beneficial effects on mental health conditions may be due to its ability to “reset” the Default Mode Network (DMN), the brain’s control system. An overactive DMN been linked to depression and other mood disorders, and psilocybin has been shown to dramatically reduce activity in the area.^[15] This has been linked to antidepressant effects.^[16]

Read more about the relationship between psychedelics and the DMN here.

Want to easily grow mushrooms at home?

Third Wave’s Mushrooms Grow Kit and Course turn the daunting task of cultivating mushrooms into a simple one.

Our in-depth guide and step-by-step videos will have you harvesting your own home-grown mushrooms in no time.

What are the Benefits and Risks of Using Mushrooms?

Potential Benefits

Among the many historical cultures that have used them, psychedelic mushrooms have a longstanding, profound, and storied reputation as an agent for healing and change. Beyond lore, the benefits of these powerful little fungi are being recognized today in a big way. Studies into the vast and multifarious use of psychoactive mushrooms are being conducted across the United States and abroad, and evidence is strong that they are indeed drivers of personal growth. One recent study published in the Journal of Psychopharmacology found that “a single dose of psilocybin produced substantial and enduring decreases in depressed mood and anxiety along with increases in quality of life.”

Additionally, the mystical and profound experiences that occurred when psilocybin entered the American psychedelic lexicon in the 1960s are now being researched and explored in mainstream medical science. The results are promising and compelling and suggest that psilocybin could be a powerful healer.

More specifically, clinical trials involving patients dealing with life-threatening cancer have been and are currently being conducted in the United States and abroad. These trials are mainly attempting to understand the efficacy of high-dose psilocybin experiences administered in therapeutic environments as a tool for reducing the psychological stress and anxiety that often accompanies a life-threatening diagnosis. The results so far have been promising. Under double-blind, placebo-controlled conditions, a single high dose of psilocybin has been shown to reduce symptoms of psychological distress among people with terminal diagnoses, and the effects of that experience have been substantial and enduring.

Additionally, there is a growing body of research suggesting that part of why psilocybin is so effective is that it impacts neuroplasticity, or the brain’s ability to learn, grow and, most importantly, change.

Also see: Psilocybin Benefits: Magic Mushrooms & Their Many Benefits

Risks

Psilocybin is largely considered one of the safest psychoactive substances you can take. The 2017 Global Drug Survey found that psilocybin is the safest of all the recreational drugs on the market and that just 0.2% of the people who took psilocybin in 2016 needed emergency medical treatment. That’s five times lower than that for MDMA, LSD, and cocaine. Psilocybin is also non-addictive and there’s no known lethal dose, meaning that even if you have a bad trip, you’re unlikely to overdose.

That being said, taking any drug isn’t without risk. At the outset and during a trip, psilocybin can cause some physical side effects such as nausea, perspiration, numbing, and tremors. It can also lead to anxiety, panic attacks, paranoia, and mood swings. A survey published in Substance Abuse and Misuse found that up to 33% of people surveyed who had taken mushrooms experienced paranoia and anxiety at some point during their trip. Long-term physical and psychological effects are rare. When they do occur, research suggests the cause was latent psychological disorders, not the mushrooms themselves.

There is, however, something called Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD), which is commonly known as “flashbacks.” Unlike flashbacks associated with PTSD, however, HPPD is unique to psychedelics and involves perceptual changes in the weeks or months following the use of psilocybin (or other psychedelic). The prevalence of HPPD is unknown, but it’s considered a rare disorder and is not associated with any physical changes or neurological damage.

Mushrooms for Personal Growth

One of the most promising aspects of the intentional and responsible use of psilocybin is its potential to spur personal growth. In early trials where psychedelics were given to healthy adults under supportive conditions, many participants reported lasting beneficial changes in their personality, behaviors, values, and attitudes.^[17], ^[18] More recent studies have also mirrored these early findings. About 40% of participants in laboratory studies involving psilocybin reported positive, long-term changes in their aesthetic experience and relationship to nature.^[19]

Anecdotal reports have long supported these initial findings. After a psilocybin experience, people often report a greater appreciation of music, art, and nature along with more tolerance for others and increased creativity and imagination.

A 2011 study also found that more than a year after participants had a single psilocybin experience, their self-reported measures of openness remained significantly elevated, which researches in this study and beyond attribute to a somewhat mysterious but powerful aspect of a mushroom trip: the mystical experience.

In this case, a mystical experience is defined as “feelings of unity and interconnectedness with all people and things, a sense of sacredness, feelings of peace and joy, a sense of transcending normal time and space, ineffability, and an intuitive belief that the experience is a source of objective truth about the nature of reality.” The religious identification of people who have reported having a mystical-type experience during a mushroom trip span the spectrum, but interestingly the profundity of such experiences don’t seem to correlate to religious belief—even atheists have reported the importance of their psilocybin-induced mystical experiences. Additionally, research has shown that the more intense the mystical experience, the greater the positive, long-term changes a person sees.^[20]

These subjective effects, such as feelings of interconnectedness, are likely a result of psilocybin’s ability to decrease the interconnectivity of integration hubs in the brain.^[21] In plain speak, that means psilocybin allows for more “cross-talk” between regions of the brain that are typically segregated. Researchers speculate that this enables a state of “unconstrained cognition,” meaning the ways we typically organize, categorize, and differentiate the aspects of conscious experience are broken down, and thinking becomes more flexible. ^[22] To understand how this might be beneficial, it helps to know that similar brain activity patterns are also observed during various states of meditation. For more about this, see our blog post about combining psychedelics and meditation.

It might not surprise you, then, to learn that research has shown that psilocybin can be used to enhance one’s spiritual practice. In a recent study, 75 participants engaged in a six-month spiritual course involving meditation, awareness, and self-reflection. During the course, participants were given either a low or high dose of psilocybin. At the end of the six months, the participants given the high dose of psilocybin showed significantly greater improvements in measures of spirituality such as interpersonal closeness, life meaning, death transcendence, and forgiveness.^[23]

With all this in mind, many people believe psilocybin (and other psychedelics) could be a key component of self-improvement and self-optimization. By occasioning the experience of feeling connected to the universe (in whatever individual form that takes) and confronting the deepest part of yourself, many believe psilocybin can help you take the necessary steps to become the best version of yourself you can be.

Considering a psilocybin experience for personal growth? Check out Third Wave’s vetted guide of psilocybin retreat centers around the world.

Are Psilocybin Mushrooms Legal?

Attending Legal Psilocybin Retreats

Third Wave has created its own psychedelic provider directory for you to find curated, legal psilocybin retreats. All retreats listed have either been verified or rigorously vetted by the Third Wave team, so you can feel confident knowing that these options are worth considering in this vulnerable and transformative experience.

Buying Psilocybin Mushrooms

Psilocybin has been illegal in most countries for decades, so make sure to familiarize yourself with local laws before buying psilocybin mushrooms. In the Netherlands, for example, it’s possible to purchase “magic truffles” that contain psilocybin without breaking the law due to a legal loophole. Psilocybin in some form is also legal in Brazil, the British Virgin Islands, and Jamaica.

On May 7, 2019, citizens of Denver, Colorado, voted to decriminalize psilocybin mushrooms.^[24] This means it’s no longer a punishable offense for adults aged 21 and older to possess them for personal use. This doesn’t make them legal, though. If you’re caught selling or otherwise distributing psilocybin mushrooms, and possibly even growing them, you could still face criminal charges. The law remains unchanged for the rest of Colorado—at least for the time being.

In June the same year, Oakland, California, followed suit with an amendment of its own: Council members voted unanimously to decriminalize not just psilocybin mushrooms but all “entheogenic plants” containing indoleamines, tryptamines, and phenethylamines. Like in Denver, this only applies to adults aged 21 years and older and doesn’t include synthetic substances derived from plants or fungi, such as LSD. However, unlike in Denver, it also decriminalizes (or rather deprioritizes for law enforcement) the cultivation and distribution of the specified psychedelics—which includes psilocybin mushrooms.^[25][26] Oakland is implementing a “Grow, Gather, Gift” framework for legalization, which encourages people to grow their own, gather their own, and gift their own plant medicines rather than establishing a for-profit market.

Read our article on the legality of psilocybin mushrooms.

Before sourcing legal mushrooms, it’s important to consider how you want to consume them. To help you decide, read more about the differences between mushroom capsules, edibles, teas, and raw forms in our recent article. Then check out, Third Wave’s Ultimate Guide to Sourcing Psychedelic Medicines for specific vendor recommendations, legal alternative options, and access to our entire library of psychedelic guides.

Psilocybin Mushrooms in the US

Psilocybin mushrooms may be federally banned in the US, but you can legally possess magic mushrooms in certain cities and states around the country. Voters in the 2020 elections were more vocal than ever–they want to decriminalize psychedelic mushrooms and make them available for therapeutic use.

Check out the most recent US ballot votes in our 2021 Psilocybin News article.

Growing and Harvesting Psilocybin Mushrooms

While psilocybin is illegal at the federal level in the U.S., psilocybin mushrooms were deemed legal to grow and possess (as long as they’re not dried) in New Mexico in 2005. In 1978, the Florida supreme court ruled that harvesting wild psilocybin mushrooms was effectively legal until the state legislature said otherwise. So far, no new laws have been passed to regulate the harvest of wild-picked psilocybin mushrooms.

With the exception of three states, psilocybin mushroom spores are perfectly legal to possess in the U.S., as the spores don’t contain psilocybin or psilocin, the chemicals that are specifically regulated by federal law. However, despite the spores being legal, growing mushrooms from the spores is still considered an illicit activity.

Psilocybin Mushroom History and Usage

Brief history

Archaeological evidence from the Sahara desert suggests that humans have been using psychedelic mushrooms for 7,000 years or more and mushrooms are represented in prehistoric art across many geographic regions.^[27] In most cases, they’re thought to be religious symbols, often in the context of ceremonies celebrating rights of passage. It’s thought among some that if our ancestors did use mushrooms, the experience may have influenced prehistoric culture, from art to religion to social values that regulated everyday life.

Listen to our podcast episode with Jerry Brown talking about Were Early Christians Tripping On Psilocybin Mushrooms? or Click here to read the transcript

Some take this theory pretty far. In the 90s, ethnobotanist and psychonaut Terence McKenna posited the “Stoned Ape Hypothesis,” which suggests that when early humans or pre-human hominids ingested psychedelic mushrooms, it triggered intellectual advancements that lead to evolutionary benefits—include the mind as we know it today. It should be noted that the scientific community regards this hypothesis with skepticism due to a lack of evidence support some of its assumptions.

There are, however, extensive accounts of pre-Columbian psilocybin use among the Mayan and Aztec cultures of Mesoamerica, namely in Mexico and Guatemala. After conquering these areas in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Spanish forbade psychedelic mushroom use by indigenous peoples, regarding it as a savage and uncivilized cultural practice. Despite this, the indigenous shamans ignored Spanish law in secret for over 400 years and continued to use and administer these mushrooms to preserve their cultural heritage.

The first reliable account in the West of “intoxication” with psilocybin mushrooms came in 1799 when four children were accidentally fed Psilocybe semilanceata, a species of psychedelic mushroom, which their father had unknowingly gathered and cooked into a stew.

The famous Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann (who synthesized LSD) first isolated psilocybin in the lab in 1957 from Psilocybe mexicana, a species of mushroom found primarily in Central America. A year later, it was produced synthetically for the first time.^[28]

Gordon Wasson, former vice president of J.P. Morgan & Company, apparently had a fascination with psilocybin mushrooms, which grew into an obsession. In 1955, he traveled to Oaxaca, Mexico, to meet mushroom shaman Maria Sabina, a member of the indigenous Mazatec Indian tribe, who introduced him to psilocybin mushrooms. On his first mushroom trip, he reported feeling as if his soul had been scooped out of his body. ^[29] Wasson effectively kickstarted the psychedelic mushroom movement in the West when, in 1957, Time Magazine published his photo essay, “Seeking the Magic Mushroom,” in which he detailed his experiences.

After reading of Wasson’s experiences and then traveling to Oaxaca to experience psilocybin mushrooms for themselves, Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert, researchers at Harvard University, founded the Harvard Psilocybin Project, which got them fired shortly after. So they did what any jobless, charismatic academics would have done in 1962: they started a psychedelic movement. Psilocybin mushrooms were quickly adopted into the 1960s counterculture.

In 1971, psilocybin was listed in the UN’s Convention on Psychotropic Substances as a Schedule I drug in the U.S., making it illegal for all purposes. ^[30] However, psilocybin mushrooms were not part of the UN convention, which, to this day, allows countries who have signed the convention (essentially a treaty) to regulate mushrooms that naturally contain psilocybin as they see fit. However, psilocybin mushrooms are illegal in most countries today, although there are exceptions.

Current Usage

• Psilocybin mushrooms are the most commonly used psychedelics among people ages 34 and younger.^[31]
• A 2012 study of 409 university students in the northeast U.S. found that nearly 30% had tried psilocybin mushrooms at least once.^[32]
• A report from data collected in the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) shows that, compared to other drugs, psychedelics—which include LSD, PCP, peyote, mescaline, psilocybin mushrooms, and MDMA—were used by about 1.2% of the population of people 12 years of age and older within the past month. Interestingly, “psychotherapeutics” (such as prescription antidepressants and antipsychotics) are reportedly used illegally at a rate nearly six times that of psychedelics.
• Surveys in 12 E.U. member states found that the use of psilocybin mushrooms among people aged 15–24 ranges from less than 1% to 8%.
• In the UK, almost 340,000 people aged 16–59 had used psilocybin mushrooms in the last year as of 2004/2005, right before they were made completely illegal in the U.K.

Types of Mushrooms

Of the 180+ known types of psychedelic mushrooms, the most widely known and consumed species are:

• Psilocybe cubensis: The most well-known and widely cultivated of psilocybin mushrooms.
• Psilocybe cyanescens: Less well-known compared to psilocybe cubensis, but no less cultivated. These are slightly smaller and slightly more psychoactive.
• Psilocybe azurescens: Discovered by world-renowned mycologist Paul Stamets in the mid-90s, this is likely the most potent psilocybin mushroom in the world.
• Amanita Muscaria (Fly Agaric): A red and white mushroom containing the psychoactive elements ibotenic acid and muscimol. This mushroom was regularly used in shamanic tradition by indigenous Siberian and Baltic cultures.

While magic mushrooms are typically from the genus Psilocybe, these are not the only species that contain active compounds–by far. Check out our recent article to learn about Panaeolus, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, and Conocybe mushrooms, to name a few.

How to Identify Psychedelic Mushrooms

Of course, when you first begin mushroom hunting, heed caution. Aside from distinct strains like Penis Envy, there are many types of similar-looking mushrooms with varying levels of toxicity, and usually, only well-trained mushroom hunters can differentiate between species. If you know what to look for, choosing a deadly mushroom is unlikely, but it’s important to be aware of what you’re doing. Misidentified mushrooms can cause sickness or (though rarely) even death when consumed.

That said, psilocybe cubensis grows in abundance in tropical zones throughout the world. They are classic stubby-stemmed parasol-shaped mushrooms with predominantly light-to-golden-brownish caps that are bulbous before fruiting, and flat and wide in diameter when fully mature. The most popular cubensis variety is Golden Teachers, known for medium-strength effects and profoundly insightful journeys.

Psilocybe azurescens, on the other hand, is endemic to the West Coast of the United States and appear slimmer and more convex. Read more about how to identify psychedelic mushrooms.

How to Grow Psychedelic Psilocybin Mushrooms

Disclaimer: Growing psilocybin mushrooms for consumption is a potentially illegal activity, and we do not encourage or condone this activity where it is against the law.

Growing your own psilocybin mushrooms is a good alternative to the potentially dangerous practice of collecting them. As well as providing a reliable, year-round supply, home cultivation eliminates the risk of misidentifying mushrooms in the wild. For many growers, it’s also a fun, low-cost hobby.

While there are ready-made mushroom kits available online, it’s usually best to start from scratch. The kits do contain a living mycelium substrate (the material underlying mushroom growth), which you need to grow your own mushrooms, but making your own substrate is not only more consistent, it’s also less prone to contamination. For more information on how to start your own psilocybin grow, check out our guide here.

What are some Mushroom Myths?

“Psilocybin mushrooms cause brain bleeding, stomach bleeding, and/or kidney failure”

A “bleeding brain” would be diagnosed as a stroke, hemorrhage, or aneurysm. There is no evidence of this ever happening after ingesting psilocybin mushrooms, nor is there any evidence to suggest that these mushrooms cause stomach bleeding. A 1981 report found that the two most common complications with mushroom use were dilated pupils and overly sensitive reflexes.^[33] Other literature reviews have found no complications related to mushroom use in healthy individuals.^[34][35]

As for kidney problems, the issue is actually a mushroom identification problem. The psychedelic mushroom species Psilocybe semilanceata does not cause kidney issues, but mushrooms in the family Cortinarius are often mistaken for P. semilanceata, and are harmful to the kidneys.

“Shrooms make you go insane”

Researchers have drawn similarities between psilocybin mushroom trips and psychotic episodes like those found in schizophrenia, but in almost all cases, this is temporary (hence, the term “trip”).^[36] Even people who are admitted to the emergency room after taking psilocybin mushrooms return to their normal physical and mental state within a matter of hours.^[37] A recent large, population-wide study found a reduced likelihood of psychological distress and suicidality among those who use classic psychedelics such as psilocybin mushrooms and LSD.^[38]

While there is no conclusive evidence suggesting that latent mental health problems can be exacerbated by psychedelic use, many scientists believe this is the case. ^[39] As such, if you have a history of mental illness (especially schizophrenia), you may want to avoid psychedelic drugs.

“Magic mushrooms are poisonous”

This depends on your definition of “poisonous.” If you categorize a chemical substance that induces an intoxicated state, alters your consciousness, and causes some physiological changes as poisonous, then sure, psilocybin mushrooms are poisonous. But if that’s the case, then all drugs are poisonous, including alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and caffeine. A narrower definition of a poisonous substance, however, would not categorize psilocybin as such.

While mushroom poisoning from non-psychedelic species can cause serious physical illness and, in rare cases, death, psilocybin mushrooms are not toxic. Proper identification of mushroom species, therefore, is critical.

Psilocybin Mushroom FAQ

Where can I find a legal psilocybin retreats?

To support your journey with experiencing psilocybin mushrooms legally, we’ve also curated, verified, and vetted legal psilocybin mushroom retreats in our psychedelic provider directory; maybe you can find the right one for you.

Can psilocybin be detected in a drug test?

Psilocybin mushrooms and their metabolites are not included in most standard drug screens. However, they are sometimes included in extended drug screens.^[40]

Can psilocybin cause psychological trauma?

If you follow the 6S’s of psychedelic use and avoid taking psychedelics if you have a family history of mental health issues, psilocybin will not cause psychological trauma.

In some cases, psilocybin can lead to a short period of acute psychosis, known colloquially as a “bad trip,” if you don’t follow the 6S’s. Although there is no concrete evidence, some scientists suspect that psilocybin can cause latent mental health issues to surface.

How do I know if I have psilocybin mushrooms?

Many species of mushrooms contain psilocybin, and some look similar to poisonous mushrooms, so it’s important to identify your mushrooms correctly. Many species of psilocybin mushrooms are recognizable by their long, thin stems and short cone-like caps. Other rarer mushroom species, like Penis Envy, are defined by the thick, stubby stems and bulbous cap.

Is it legal to grow psilocybin mushrooms?

In most countries, it is illegal to possess, buy, or grow psilocybin mushrooms. However, the spores are legal to buy in many places, as long as you don’t use them to grow mushrooms. If you’re looking to buy mushrooms, read our full article on the legality of psilocybin mushrooms.

What is the best way to store psilocybin mushrooms?

Mushrooms are organic matter, which means you need to store them properly to delay the decaying process. Refrigerators typically work well for raw mushrooms while freezers are more well suited for dried varieties. To ensure your mycelial collection stays fresh, we recommend choosing a magic mushroom storage method that fits with how and when you want to eat your shrooms.

How do I take psilocybin mushrooms?

Psilocybin mushrooms can be eaten whole, brewed in a tea, taken in capsules, or cooked into food. A moderate dose is 1-2.5g, which can be weighed on a scale.

Did you know the consumption method can affect your psilocybin experience? Check out our recent article to learn more about how different forms of magic mushroom can affect the onset, duration, and intensity of the journey.

How do I microdose with psilocybin mushrooms?

Psilocybin mushrooms can be microdosed by ingesting around 0.1-0.3 g, but everyone’s tolerance is different.

How does psilocybin tolerance work?

Taking a moderate dose of psilocybin will produce immediate tolerance. If you take the drug again soon, it will have a weaker effect. You should wait at least three days between psilocybin doses.

Psilocybin also has immediate cross-over effects, meaning it builds tolerance against other psychedelics in the same pharmacological class. Learn more about psilocybin tolerance and how to prevent bad trips in our in-depth article.

Can I mix psilocybin with other drugs?

Psilocybin should not be mixed with Tramadol, as it can lead to serotonin syndrome. Be cautious of mixing psilocybin with cannabis, amphetamines, or cocaine. Click here for a detailed chart of safe drug combinations.

Want to easily grow mushrooms at home?

Third Wave’s Mushrooms Grow Kit and Course turn the daunting task of cultivating mushrooms into a simple one.

Our in-depth guide and step-by-step videos will have you harvesting your own home-grown mushrooms in no time.

Footnotes

[1] Passie, T., Seifert, J., Schneider, U., & Emrich, H. M. (2002). The pharmacology of psilocybin. Addiction Biology, 7(4), 357–364. Retrieved from: https://maps.org/research-archive/w3pb/2002/2002_Passie_22704_1.pdf.

[2] Johnson, M. W., Sewell, R. A., & Griffiths, R. R. (2012). Psilocybin dose-dependently causes delayed, transient headaches in healthy volunteers. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 123(1), 132–140. Retrieved from: https://cpdd.org/publications/drug-and-alcohol-dependence/.

[3] Studerus, E., Kometer, M., Hasler, F., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2011). Acute, subacute and long-term subjective effects of psilocybin in healthy humans: a pooled analysis of experimental studies. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25(11), 1434–1452. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0269881110382466.

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“Based on the encouraging results of multiple clinical trials of psychedelic-assisted therapies, it has become a cliche to say that we may be on the ‘cusp of a revolution in psychiatry,’” said Health Strategies International founder Elliot Marseille, the corresponding au

“Our mission is to provide rigorous and policy-relevant economic analyses on these emerging therapies,” Marseille explained. “In part because of its relevance to the decisions of health care payers, and thus to large scale access to the new therapies, cost-effectiveness analysis features importantly among GIPSE’s analytic approaches. Since MDMA is the closest of the psychedelic therapies to receiving FDA approval as a legal medicine, it made sense to devote analytic resources to this therapy.”

The researchers used a Markov model to calculate expected medical costs, mortality, and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of MDMA-assisted therapy over 30 years. The data for the model came from a phase 3 clinical trial of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD.

During the trial, treatment was administered to 90 participants over the course of 18 weeks. Patients underwent three 90-minute preparatory psychotherapy sessions, three 8-hour active MDMA or placebo sessions, and nine 90-minute integrative psychotherapy sessions. MDMA was well tolerated in patients with severe PTSD, and there was a robust reduction in symptoms among MDMA patients compared to patients receiving a placebo combined with a similar therapy.

thor of the new study.

“But like many cliches, there is substantial truth in this. About 10 months ago, along with colleagues at UCSF and UC Berkeley, we were inspired by the promise of these novel therapies to launch the Global Initiative for Psychedelic Science Economics (GIPSE).”

The cost of the MDMA-assisted therapy was $11,537 per patient. The researchers estimated that utilizing the treatment would save $132.9 million while averting 61.4 premature deaths over the course of 30 years in a cohort of 1,000 hypothetical patients.

“The results we reported are based on the outcomes of the first phase 3 trial of a psychedelic therapy,” Marseille told PsyPost. “The most important findings are that MDMA-assisted therapy for severe, chronic PTSD can save health care dollars while providing clinical benefits far in excess of continued standard treatment. This should encourage health care payers to include MDMA-assisted therapy as a benefit to its members suffering from severe PTSD who did not benefit from standard first-line treatments.”

The researchers previously examined the cost-effectiveness of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy using data from phase 2 clinical trials. “This regimen featured two 8-hour MDMA sessions,” Marseille explained. “The regimen used in the phase 3 trial portrayed in our just-published 2022 paper features a third 8-hour MDMA session. Naturally, this makes the regimen more expensive. We therefore asked the question, ‘Is the additional benefit afforded by the third MDMA session sufficient to justify its cost?’ The answer is yes. The third session saves additional healthcare dollars over time, while conferring substantial additional clinical benefit.”

But Marseille noted that the phase 3 trial only evaluated the short-term efficacy of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy. “There are currently no published data on the long term benefits of MDMA therapy for PTSD, although the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), which sponsored the trials, is currently working on such a study,” he explained. “However, one small follow-up study from the phase 2 trials found that over an average follow-up period of 3.54 years, the benefit of MDMA-assisted therapy increased over time. Although the increase was not statistically significant, the sustained benefit was statistically significant. While we await more definitive information, this early finding is encouraging.”

Marseille also said that the costs associated with MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD could change by the time it is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

“The final cost may be substantially higher than the figure used in our base-case estimates,” Marseille told PsyPost. “However, the intervention would remain cost-saving over a standard 30-year horizon for any plausible MDMA-assisted therapy cost; but the time to financial ‘break-even’ for payers becomes longer, the higher the cost.”

“So far, the trials for MDMA-assisted therapy are limited almost entirely to people with severe or extreme, chronic and treatment-resistant forms of the disorder,” the researcher added. “It is hugely important that we have an effective new treatment for this group of patients. What is not yet known is how beneficial MDMA-assisted therapy might be for people with less severe and chronic PTSD. Thus, the cost-effectiveness of MDMA treatment for less severely-affected patients is also unknown.”

The study, “Updated cost-effectiveness of MDMA-assisted therapy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: Findings from a phase 3 trial“, was published by Elliot Marseille, Jennifer M. Mitchell, and James G. Kahn.

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New articles about the science backing our culture’s recently revived appreciation of psychedelics are being published every day. Truly, there is no shortage of information about psilocybin, LSD, MDMA, DMT, ayahuasca, and other psychedelic compounds out there. It’s all at your fingertips, whether you’re an academic scholar, researcher, writer, or simply a curious human being. But it’s nice to kick back and watch instead of read, especially after a long day of work.

Consider turning on this hour-long 2019 documentary that explores the treatment of end-of-life anxiety in terminally ill cancer patients using psilocybin. It features the testimony of psychedelic scientists and researchers actively engaged in these trials, as well as the study subjects themselves undergoing the therapy, interweaving scientific theories with ineffable, spiritual experiences described by those who took the plunge into drug-induced ego death. “It really shakes you to the very ground of your being, and can be incredibly humbling, but also enlightening,” says featured psychologist Bill Richards, who studies the subject at Johns Hopkins. One of the most profound psilocybin testimonies comes from a woman who had the revelation that her breath and the wind is one with the breath of God. When she asked to see the face of God during her trip, she was shocked to be shown her husband’s face, serving as another clue that, perhaps, the divine isn’t above or below, but right here and right now, in everything we see.

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Every culture in human history has looked for ways to alter its consciousness. So where does this desire come from? And why are some drugs legal and others illegal? What is it about some drugs that make governments declare war on them? In News on Drugs, writer JS Rafaeli chats to fellow drug nerds about their studies to tackle some of the biggest questions in the crazy world of mind-altering substances. Watch more like this: How Psychoactive Plants Changed the World

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Acid and mushroom trips may be two sides of the same psychedelic coin, according to findings from a clinical study published Friday in Neuropsychopharmacology, the official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology.

Conducted by Professor Matthias Liechti at the University of Basel in Switzerland, the double-blinded, randomized, and placebo-controlled study compared the subjective and autonomic effects of psilocybin — the psychoactive ingredient in certain mushrooms — to those of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Researchers observed 28 test subjects. Some were experienced psychonauts. Others had never dabbled in hallucinogens. Each underwent five different test sessions involving two different doses of LSD (100 micrograms and 200 micrograms), two different doses of psilocybin (15 milligrams and 30 milligrams), and one placebo.

A double-blinded, randomized, and placebo-controlled study compares the subjective and autonomic effects of psilocybin to those of LSD, and the results are astounding.

Acid and mushroom trips may be two sides of the same psychedelic coin, according to findings from a clinical study published Friday in Neuropsychopharmacology, the official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology.

Conducted by Professor Matthias Liechti at the University of Basel in Switzerland, the double-blinded, randomized, and placebo-controlled study compared the subjective and autonomic effects of psilocybin — the psychoactive ingredient in certain mushrooms — to those of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Researchers observed 28 test subjects. Some were experienced psychonauts. Others had never dabbled in hallucinogens. Each underwent five different test sessions involving two different doses of LSD (100 micrograms and 200 micrograms), two different doses of psilocybin (15 milligrams and 30 milligrams), and one placebo.

The authors cite growing interest in psychedelic-assisted therapy as one of the reasons behind their study, pointing out that while different psychedelics are now known to combat everything from anxiety and depression to post-traumatic stress syndrome, no modern study had properly evaluated the actual subjective and autonomic effects of LSD and psilocybin.

In terms of the autonomic differences, the study found psilocybin increased the subject’s blood pressure more than LSD, whereas LSD resulted in a greater increase of heart rate. Both drugs showed comparable cardio stimulant properties.

The study examined adverse effects of the psychedelics, too. No severe adverse events were observed, though a few participants suffered aftereffects ranging from headaches and nosebleeds to nightmares and restlessness. The type and quantity of the adverse events was comparable after both psilocybin and LSD trips.

Researchers also found no difference in the autonomic and adverse effects of LSD and psilocybin between male and female participants.

As hallucinogenic historians will note, this isn’t the first time a scientist in Basel made a name for himself by experimenting with LSD. The Rhine-adjacent municipality doubles as the birthplace of the acid trip. On April 19, 1943, Swiss chemist Dr. Albert Hofmann ingested 250 micrograms of LSD and rode his bicycle home as the drug’s psychoactive properties began kicking in. Enthusiasts now celebrate Hofmann’s discovery every year on April 19, a holiday which has come to be known as “Bicycle Day.”

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While there have been many studies showing that psilocybin-assisted therapy effectively relieves depression, for how long the relief lasts has been an open question.

For example, in 2020, Johns Hopkins University published a study of 24 individuals with depression who received 2 psilocybin-assisted therapy sessions. After 4 weeks, 71% of patients saw their depression symptoms decrease by 50% or more, and 54% of patients were considered in remission, meaning their symptoms were not severe enough for a diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder.

At the time, there was jubilation, as this was four times more effective than current anti-depression treatments on the market. But in order for psilocybin therapy to be a realistic treatment, the effects would have to last longer. After all, it would not be reasonable to expect someone to undergo two psilocybin treatments per month, not to mention the fact that it would be insanely expensive.

But now, Johns Hopkins has published a one year follow up to the same study, and the results are stunning. A full year after receiving two doses of psilocybin, the number of people who benefited from the experience actually increased!

A full 78% of participants saw their depressive symptoms decrease by 50% or more, and 58% were in remission.

According to Rolland Griffiths, a lead investigator in the study, “Compared to standard antidepressants, which must be taken for long stretches of time, psilocybin has the potential to enduringly relieve the symptoms of depression with one or two treatments.”

Now, the question becomes, is the benefit limited to one year? Or, could they last longer, perhaps even for a lifetime? 

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